提高认知能力的印度传统草药土丁桂

doi:10.3736/jcim20091101

Abstract

Shankhpushpi is an Ayurvedic drug used for its action on the central nervous system, especially for boosting memory and improving intellect. Quantum of information gained from Ayurvedic and other Sanskrit literature revealed the existence of four different plant species under the name of Shankhpushpi, which is used in various Ayurvedic prescriptions described in ancient texts, singly or in combination with other herbs. The sources comprise of entire herbs with following botanicals viz., Convulvulus pluricaulis Choisy. (Convulvulaceae), Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. (Convulvulaceae), Clitoria ternatea Linn. (Papilionaceae) and Canscora decussata Schult. (Gentianaceae). A review on the available scientific information in terms of pharmacognostical characteristics, chemical constituents, pharmacological activities, preclinical and clinical applications of controversial sources of Shankhpushpi is prepared with a view to review scientific work undertaken on Shankhpushpi. It may provide parameters of differentiation and permit appreciation of variability of drug action by use of different botanical sources.

Key words: Convulvulus pluricaulis , Evolvulus alsinoides , Clitorea ternatea, Canscora decussata , medicine, Ayurvedic, cognition disorders

Neeraj Kumar Sethiya, Alok Nahata, Shri Hari Miahra, Vinod Kumar Dixit. An update on Shankhpushpi, a cognition-boosting Ayurvedic medicine. Journal of Chinese Integrative Medicine, 2009, 7(11): 1001-1022.

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Figures/Tables 11

Evaluated characteristics	E. alsinoides	C. pluricaulis	C. ternatea	C. decussata
Habit	Diffuse, perennial herb	Prostrate, perennial herbs	Ornamental perennial climber	Erect, branching, annual herb
Stem structure
Length	8–10 branches, from central stock (35–40 cm)	Several prostrate stems (10–30 cm)	20–45 cm, splintery, fibrous	20–60 cm, opposite decussate branches
Surface	Pubescent	Clothed with silky hairs	Smooth	Glabrous
Internodes	7–10 mm	10–12 mm	6–13 cm	Usually 3.5–4.5 cm, up to 6.2 cm
Taste	Tasteless	Tasteless	Bitter	Bitter
Outline in T.S.	Terete, wings absent	Terete, wings absent	Terete, wings absent	Annular with four wings
Cuticle	Ridged	Striated	Ridged	Ridged
Trichomes covering	Present,unequally biarmed	Present, conical, unicellular	Present, with two basal cells, multicellular	Absent
Glandular	Present, stalk unicellular, head multicellular (8– 10 cells in 2–4 tiers)	Present, stalk unicellular, head multicellular (four cells)	Present, stalk multicellular, head unicellular	Absent
Chlorenchyma	Present	Present	Present	Absent
Collenchyma	Present	Present	Present	Absent
Endodermis	Indistinct	Indistinct	Indistinct	Distinct
Pericyclic fibers	Present	Present	Present	Absent
Phloem fibers	Absent	Present in old stem only	Present	Absent
Pith	Core hollow	Often an angular hollow, cells pitted in older stem	Pitted with slopting end	Intact, cells pitted when mature
Leaf structure
Phyllotaxy	Alternate	Alternate	Opposite	Opposite decussate
Shape	Elliptic-oblong	Linear, lower Oblanc- eolate,upper elliptic	Imparipinnate, ovate or oblong	Oblong, lanceolate
Size	(8–12) mm× (5–7) mm	(12–38) mm× (5–10) mm	(2–5) cm× (1–2) cm	(25–38) mm× (8–15) mm
Apex	Mucronate	Obtuse-muronate	Mucronate	Acute
Surface	Pubescent	Hairy	Hairy	Glabrous
Midrib
Outline in T.S.	Plano-convex, dorsal bulge prominent	Concavo-convex	Concavo-convex, dorsiventral	Concavo-convex, dorsal bulge irregularly lobed
Collenchyma	Present on either side	Present beneath upper epidermis	–	Absent on either side
Calcium oxalate	Present as rosette	Plenty, along veins	Prismatic crystal along veins	Absent
Lamina	Isobilateral, palisade in 2 layers on either side	Isobilateral, palisade in 3 and 2 layers beneath upper and lower epidermis respectively	Dorsiventral, palisade in either side	Dorsiventral, palisade in 1 layer
Cuticle	Striated	Striated	Striated, weavy	Ridged
Trichomes	Present, similar as in stem	Present, similar as in stem	Present, similar as in stem	Absent
Stomata	Both anisocytic and paracytic types on either side	Both anisocytic and paracytic types on either side	Subcoriaceous, rubiaceous stomata with wavy cells present on both side	Anisocytic; upper epidermis has a few stomata
Quantitative analysis
Stomatal number
Upper surface	280–328–405	202–216–238	291–342–411	Very few
Lower surface	270–336–424	184–212–248	188–223–251	52–72–108
Stomatal index
Upper surface	14.5–15.5–16.5	17.0–18.0–19.9	16.9–18.0–19.1	Very few
Lower surface	15.7–17.0–18.7	13.8–15.8–16.9	14.8–16.3–17.2	16.9–21.0–24.6
Vein-islet number	18.0–19.0–20.0	21.0–23.0–25.0	7.5–8.0–9.0	1–2.5–3.25
Extractive value (w/w, %)
Water soluble	19.80	17.08	18.21	10.00
Alcohol soluble	18.20	14.04	16.14	13.92

Phytochemistry	E. alsinoides	C. pluricaulis
Carbohydrates		D-glucose, maltose, rhamnose, sucrose, starch and other carbohydrate^[43,44,45].
Proteins and amino acids	Ergot alkaloids^{[49, 50]}.	Proteins and amino acids ^{[44, 45]}.
Alkaloids	Betaine, shankhapushpine and evolvine^{[54,55,56,57]}. Tropane alkaloids^[58].	Only convolamine has been identified, but other alkaloids (convoline, convolidine, convolvine, confoline, convosine, etc.) were found in other species from this family^{[59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66]}. The plant contains alkaloid shankhapushpine (C17H25NO2), melting point from 162 ℃ to 164 ℃^[62].
Fatty acids/Volatile oil/Fixed oil	Fresh plant contains volatile oil. It also contains a yellow neutral fat, an organic acid and saline substances. An unidentified compound has been isolated^[13]. Stearic, oleic, linoleic acid with magnesium phosphate. Palmitic, 8-methyldecanoic and heptadecanoic acids have been reported^{[57, 69]}.	Volatile oil^[62], fatty acids, fatty alcohols & hydrocarbons, myristic acid (30.9%), palmitic acid (66.8 %) and linoleic acid (2.3%), straight chain hydrocarbon, hextriacontane^{[70, 71]}.
Phenolics/Glycosides/ Triterpenoid/Steroids	Scopoletin, scopolin, umbelliferone, 2-methyl-1, 2, 3, 4-butanetetrol, ferulic acid esters with alcohols C₁₄-C₁₇. 2,3,4-trihydroxy-3-methylbutyl 3-[3-hydroxy-4-(2,3,4-trihydroxy-2-methylbutoxy) pheny-l]-2 propionate and 1, 3-di-O-caffeoyl quinic acid methyl ester, caffeic acid, 6-methoxy-7-O-β-glucopyranoside coumarin, 2-C-methyl erythritol, kaempferol-7-O-β-glucopyranoside, kaempferol-3-O-β glucopyranoside and quecetine-3-O-β-glucopyranoside were reported from n-BuOH soluble fraction from the ethanol extract of E.alsinoides^{[76, 77]}. Penttriacontane, triacontane and β-sitosterol are found in petroleum ether extract^[57]. Flavonols, flavonoids, saponins, the alkanes, phenolics, and tannins^{[54-56, 78-80]}. EA-1, a phytochemical marker has been isolated by preparative TLC and characterized by IR, FAB-MS, NMR and elemental analysis techniques^[81]. Estimation of scopoletin by spectrofluriometry^[82].	Deshpande & Srivastava (1969) carried out a chemical examination of the whole plant of C. pluricaulis and reported the presence of scopoletin, β-sitosterol and ceryl alcohol^[70]. Chloroform fraction of this contains 20-oxodotriacontanol, tetratriacontanoic acid and 29-oxodotriacontanol, flavonoid-kampferol, steroids-phytosterols, β-sitosterol^[62]. CP-1, a phytochemical marker has been isolated and characterized by HPTLC technique^[81]. Estimation of scopoletin by HPTL in Cp and its formulation^[82,83]. Estimation of scopoletin by spectrofluriometry^[84].
Plant growth regulator	Phytohormones^[16]

Phytochemistry	C. ternatea	C. decussata
Carbohydrates	Water-soluble mucilage, delphinidin 3, 3, 5-triglucoside^[46]. Oligosaccharides or flutulene^[47]. Mucilage contains anhydrog-acatan, anhydropentosan and methyl-pentosan^[48].
Proteins and amino acids	Amino acids and amides^[51], characterization of amino acid^[52]. Protein finotin and three unidentified trypsin inhibitors^[53].
Alkaloids	An alkaloid^{[48, 67]}.	Alkaloid^[68].
Fatty acids/Volatile oil/Fixed oil	Palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acids^{[72,73,74,75]}. The seeds yield a greenish-yellow fixed oil^[52].
Phytochemistry	C. ternatea	C. decussata
Phenolics/Glycosides/ Triterpenoid/Steroids	P-hydroxycinnamic acid, flavonol-3-glycoside, ethyl-α-D-galactopyranoside, adenosine, 3, 5, 7, 4-tetrahydroxyflavone, 3-rhamnoglucoside, a polypeptide, hexacosanol, β-sitosterol, γ-sitosterol and an anthoxanthin glucoside^{[85,86,87,88]}. Terntains (blue anthocyanins)^[89]. The six major anthocyanins ternatins were isolated and the structures were characterized as malonylated delphinidin 3, 3', 5'-triglucosides having 3', 5'- side chains with alternative D-glucose and p-coumaric acids unit^{[90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98]}. Flavanol glycosides, kaempferol, quercetin, lactones aparajitin and clitorin^{[99,100,101,102,103,104,105]}, delphinidin^[106], acylated anthocyanins^[94], flavonoids, malonylated flavonol glycosides^{[105, 106]}. Yadava & Verma (2003) isolated antimicrobial flavonol glycoside^[107]. Banerjee and Chakravarti (1963-1964) reported the isolation and identification of pentacyclic triterpenoid, taraxerol and taraxerone from the roots^{[108, 109]}. Content of taraxerol in root of CT was determined through HPTLC^[110].	Xanthone^{[56, 68, 111, 112]}, (-)-loliolides^[113], 1, 3, 5-tri and 1, 3, 5, 6, 7-penta oxygenated xanthones^[114], 1-hydroxy-3, 7, 8 -trimethoxy, 1, 8-dihydroxy-3,7-dimethoxy, 1, 7-dihydroxy-3, 8-dimethoxy and 1,7,8-trihydroxy-3-methoxy xanthones ^[115]. Ghosal (1971) isolated known and new triterpines^[68], lanostane triterpenoids^[116]. Simultaneous estimation of mangiferin and scopoletin by spectrofluriometry^[117].
Plant growth regulator	Indole acetic acid, kinetin, ABA and gibberelic acid^{[118, 119]}.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

arts/Extract/Compound used	E. alsinoides	C. pluricaulis	C. ternatea	C.decussata
Toxicological studies
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	[121]	[122, 123]	[124-126]	[127]
Learning and memory enhancing, enhancement of acetylcholine content
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	[128-131]	[122, 123, 132]	[120, 124, 133-138]	Not reported
Nootropic activity/Anxiolytic activity/Tranquillizing property/Antidepressant activity/Antistress activity/ Neurodegenerative/Antiamensic/CNS
Roots and aerial parts/Alcoholic extract/ Methanolic extract	[56, 77, 130, 139-143]	[27, 61, 144-152]	[125, 153, 154]	[127]
Anticonvulsant activity
Roots and aerial parts/Alcoholic extract/ Methanolic extract	Not reported	[150, 155]	[125, 154]	[127, 156, 157]
Monoamine oxidase-inhibiting activity
Mangiferin	Not reported	Not reported	Not reported	[158]
Antioxidant activity
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/Alcoholic extract	[141, 159]	[160]	[160]	Not reported
Hypolipidemic
Roots and aerial parts/Alcoholic extract	Not reported	[161]	Not reported	Not reported
Immunomodulatory
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	[162]	[163]	[164]	[165]
Blood platelet aggregation inhibiting and vascular smooth muscle relaxant
Flowers/Anthocynins	Not reported	Not reported	[166]	Not reported
Antipyretic activity/Anti-inflammatory activity/Analgesic activity
Roots and aerial parts/Alcoholic extract/ Methanolic extract	[162, 167]	[150]	[125, 126, 168]	[127, 169, 170]
Antimicrobial activity/Insecticidal activity/Antifungal/Antibacterial/Anthelmintic
Aerial parts/Extract Seeds/Finotin/ Flavanol glycoside	[56, 79, 171-176]	[177, 178]	[53, 107, 179]	Not reported
Antidiabetic activity
Flowers/Ethanolic extract	Not reported	[180	[181]	Not reported
Antiulcer and anticatatonic activity
Alcoholic extract	[172]	[182]	Not reported	Not reported
Diuretic activity
Roots/Alcoholic extract	Not reported	Not reported	[183]	[127]
Local anesthetic effect
Aerial parts/Alcoholic extract	Not reported	Not reported	[125]	Not reported
Spermicidal actvity
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	Not reported	Not reported	Not reported	[184, 185]
Hepatoprotective and gastroprotective
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	[186]	Not reported	Not reported	[168, 187]
Cardiovascular activity
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	[55, 56]	[188, 189]	Not reported	[127]
Antituberculosis
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	Not reported	Not reported	Not reported	[190, 191]
Skin care
Roots and aerial parts/Aqueous extract/ Alcoholic extract	[192, 193]	Not reported	Not reported	Not reported
Drug interaction
Interaction between phenytoin and Shankhpushpi	Not reported	[194]	Not reported	Not reported
Activity of polyherbal formulation/Clinical studies
BR-16A (Mentat)/Thyrocap/Ayushman-8	[195-209]	[210-212]	[213]	[214]
Review on various pharmacological aspects
Complete	[16, 56, 215]	[56]	[56, 120]	[56]

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Taxonomic hierarchy	E. alsinoides	C. pluricaulis	C. ternatea	C. decussata
Kingdom	Plantae	Plantae	Plantae	Plantae
Sub-kingdom	Tracheobionta	Tracheobionta	Tracheobionta	Tracheobionta
Super-division	Spermatophyta	Spermatophyta	Spermatophyta	Spermatophyta
Division	Magnoliophyta	Magnoliophyta	Magnoliophyta	Magnoliophyta
Class	Magnoliopsida	Magnoliopsida	Magnoliopsida	Magnoliopsida
Sub-class	Asteridae	Asteridae	Rosidae	Asteridae
Order	Solanales	Solanales	Fabales	Gentianales
Family	Convolvulaceae	Convolvulaceae	Fabaceae	Gentianaceae
Genus	Evolvulus	Convulvulus	Clitorea	Canscora
Species	alsinoides	pluricaulis	ternatea	decussata

An update on Shankhpushpi, a cognition-boosting Ayurvedic medicine

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